Women who aspired to professional positions in the 1960s regularly ran up against quotas in medical, law, and graduate schools. They often had to meet higher standards than men in gaining admissions to many colleges and universities. And if they were able to earn the degrees, they faced discrimination in the marketplace, often because of nepotism policies or misplaced concerns about their commitment to work. Eventually, the discrimination experienced by these (mostly white, mostly middle-class) women turned them into the stealth fighters who managed, despite the odds, to transform educational opportunities for girls and women in the United States by pushing passage and implementation of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.

Title IX is often known for opening gym doors to women, and it is often blamed for the demise of men’s athletic competition in sports such as wrestling, gymnastics, or swimming. Ironically, however, this sex discrimination legislation was initially about everything but athletics. Indeed, the cadre of women and men who coordinated the movement that led to Title IX did not even consider athletics—they were interested in prohibiting discrimination in access to education and employment.

When Title IX of the Educational Amendments was passed in 1972, there was no discussion, let alone consensus, about what prohibiting sex discrimination would mean. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited sex discrimination in employment but it was rarely enforced. Moreover, the original guidelines defining sex discrimination under the statute allowed actions based on sexual stereotypes. The notion of sex discrimination under the US Constitution was similarly nascent. It was not until 1971 that the United States Supreme Court struck down a state statute as unconstitutional because it discriminated on the basis of sex without a reasonable justification (Reed v Reed).

What follows are the oral histories of some of the important voices of women activists in the early 1970s. Some of these women were government employees with responsibility for implementing Title IX. Others–some known, some lesser known–worked with interest groups, especially the National Organizational for Women (NOW) or the Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL), fighting for aggressive enforcement of Title IX. Birch Bayh, the only male in these oral histories, is included as the original sponsor of Title IX in Congress.

Oral histories collect information about the past from observers and participants in that past. They gather data not available in written records about events, people, decisions, and processes. The point is to preserve, collect, and interpret 20th century history through the medium of first-person testimony. These women played major roles in seeing Title IX become a reality.

Most of the actions of these women interviewed involved the crucial discussion of what should constitute sex discrimination under Title IX. We asked them about the types of organizations women formed, the kinds of arguments these women or their groups made, and the organizational strategies developed by the groups. In addition, we asked them to identify their successes, challenges, and regrets.

In some ways their stories are simply part of what happened in the 1960s and 70s: Outside interest groups took on the government, big business, and major institutions (like the NCAA) with the threat of litigation or public exposure to shape public policy. In other ways, however, they differ from the paradigmatic story: the women were relatively young, inexperienced, and powerless (at least in a traditional sense) and ignored their specific differences for what they saw as the public good.

We hope these oral histories help to capture this moment in history, especially for current generations of young women and men who might think the world has always been the way it is now.

Julia Lamber, Jean Robinson, and Pamela Walters
Professors Emeritae
Indiana University, Bloomington

To learn more about the project see the following documents:

• Timeline of Title IX Events
• Citations to Legal Authorities and Organizations Mentioned in the Oral Histories